Using a computerized data collection method to explore sketch map drawing sequence

Cognitive mapping has attracted immense interest from many fields, creating collaborative and cross-disciplinary research. The study of cognitive maps enjoyed almost two decades of growth, until its decline in the early 1980s. By the 1990s, the new cross-disciplinary exchange with computer science and information technology has renewed interest in the field, which may be the next wave of cognitive mapping research explosion. This study will, through the development of an innovative tool and an in depth analysis of cognitive maps, namely, sequence, search for links between sequence and other variables, namely sketch map type classification, sketch map drawing processes and differences between female and male sketch maps. The methodological tool, namely MMAPIT, was a different approach from past studies to collect sketch maps. MMAPIT was a combination of hardware (Tablet PC) and software that allowed subjects to draw their sketch map directly on the tablet and recorded the drawing process in audio and video format. The drawing process was transcribed producing the sequence or order each element was drawn. The sequence data not only generated new ways of examining sketch maps, they also produced results worthy of note of new methodology used and the pairing of unlikely results. There were four major findings from this study, namely the fish tail graphical pattern, six ways to draw sketch maps, division of the landmark element into subgroups, and differences found between female and male produced sketch maps. The fish tail is a pattern resulting from the graphical presentation of the proportion of elements drawn at each sequence. This pattern showed the increase of landmarks and the decrease of paths throughout the graph. A second use of sequence was a method to classify sketch maps into map types including sequential, spatial and hybrid maps. Sequences were also input into a software, namely ClustalW, to cluster groups of subjects with similar sequence strings. This method not only classified map types but also revealed that sketch maps can be drawn through recalling elements in six different ways. These six drawing methods all started with paths, suggesting their importance as a framework for sketch map building. The recall order of elements is part of a larger study in psychology termed sequential spatial memory. In addition, this study also found gender differences; females drew more landmarks while males drew more paths. This study has only uncovered the beginning of the sequence puzzle. A larger sample population, cross-disciplinary work and investigation on links between sketch map sequence and memory are required to further our understanding of peoples’ perception of the environment and how that is reflected in the multilayered sketch maps. This understanding can lead to modelling peoples’ sketch maps followed by predicting travel behaviours

The Role of Geospatial Thinking and Geographic Skills in Effective Problem Solving with GIS: K-16 Education

Effective use of a Geographic Information System (GIS) is hampered by the limited geospatial reasoning abilities of students. The ability to reason with spatial relations, more specifically apply geospatial concepts, including the identification of spatial patterns and spatial associations, is important to geographic problem solving in a GIS context. This dissertation examines the broad influence of three factors on GIS problem solving: 1) affection towards computers, geography, and mathematics, 2) geospatial thinking, as well as 3) geographic skills. The research was conducted with 104 students in Waterloo, Ontario, Canada. Students were drawn from four educational levels: grade 9 students, 13 to 14 years of age; 1st year undergraduate university students, 3rd and 4th year undergraduate geography majors; and geography students at the graduate level ranging from 22 to 32 years of age. The level of affection is measured with modified scales borrowed from psychology. Results show that students in general exhibit positive sentiments toward computers and geography but less so towards mathematics. Spatial thinking and knowledge of geospatial concepts are measured by a 30-item scale differentiating among spatial thinkers along a novice-expert continuum. Scores on the scale showed an increase in spatial reasoning ability with age, grade, and level of education, such that grade 9 students averaged 7.5 out of 30 while the mean score of graduate students was 20.6. The final exercise assessed pertinent skills to geography namely inquiry, data collection, and analysis. In general, there was a positive correlation in the scores such that the skill proficiency increased with grade. Related analysis found three factors that affect problem-solving performance with a GIS. These include age, geographic skills (inquiry and analysis), and geospatial thinking (subscales analysis, representation, comprehension, and application). As well, the relationship(s) between performance on the geospatial scale and the observed problem-solving sequences and strategies applied on a GIS was examined. In general, students with lower scores were more apt to use basic visualization (zoom/measure tools) or buffer operations, while those with higher scores used a combination of buffers, intersection, and spatial queries. There were, however, exceptions as some advanced students used strategies that overly complicated the problem while others used visualization tools alone. The study concludes with a discussion on future research directions, followed by a series of pencil and paper games aimed to develop spatial thinking within a geographic setting